tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-43918903877697608162024-03-23T03:16:03.129-07:00ANCIENT EMPIRE AND CIVILIZATIONUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger118125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-86600077137252033602024-03-14T20:53:00.000-07:002024-03-14T20:53:42.420-07:00The Flourishing Legacy of the Phoenician EmpireThe Phoenicians emerged as a formidable trading power in the wake of the Mycenaean civilization's collapse circa 1200 BC. This pivotal moment marked the ascent of the Phoenician era, characterized by a resurgence of their major cities following the upheaval wrought by the Sea Peoples. Buoyed by newfound political autonomy, the Phoenicians leveraged their robust trade networks, laying the groundwork for their burgeoning empire.<br /><br />Stretching along the Levantine coast from the Suez to the Gulf of Alexandretta, the Phoenicians commanded a vast swath of territory, as chronicled by ancient classical authors. Their chief cities—Byblos, Tyre, and Sidon—served not only as bustling ports on the eastern Mediterranean but also as pivotal hubs for distributing goods to the hinterlands, particularly into Mesopotamia.<br /><br />Central to the Phoenician success story were their intrepid sailors, who navigated perilous waters, braving unforgiving winds and treacherous reefs to chart new courses. These maritime pioneers facilitated the export of a diverse array of commodities, including lumber, glass, and metallic wares crafted from copper and bronze. Notably, the Phoenicians capitalized on the abundant purple dye derived from the murex mollusk, a prized commodity synonymous with royalty and luxury.<br /><br />However, the zenith of Phoenician influence was not without its challenges. In the late 8th century BC, the expanding Assyrian Empire annexed many Phoenician cities along the Levant coast, imposing its dominion over the region. Subsequent upheavals saw control over Phoenician territories change hands, with periods of Egyptian and Babylonian rule following the collapse of the Assyrian hegemony in the mid-7th century BC.<br /><br />Despite these vicissitudes, the legacy of the Phoenician Empire endures as a testament to their indomitable spirit of enterprise and innovation. Their mastery of maritime trade routes not only facilitated the exchange of goods but also facilitated the cross-cultural exchange of ideas, laying the groundwork for the flourishing of civilization in the ancient Mediterranean world. Through their enduring legacy, the Phoenicians continue to inspire awe and admiration as pioneers of maritime commerce and cultural diffusion.<br /><i>The Flourishing Legacy of the Phoenician Empire<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTb1eioftj9EmGxxy_BEBdh2TsMmyeA6ucdKsfjop0lB1v1gjVbvksfwq7kaBVxTdykf55K4FgBpeZH5enalqxcMjTDavastfBmRUgBtfPxkzarSJ6Ne7Rfa9HujCeLpkFb28GD-STjywaDvjmKpq_vEEAMglyYEF8Mn2gRv1DNQWLRVGAJYUZDiTbXck/s696/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="287" data-original-width="696" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTb1eioftj9EmGxxy_BEBdh2TsMmyeA6ucdKsfjop0lB1v1gjVbvksfwq7kaBVxTdykf55K4FgBpeZH5enalqxcMjTDavastfBmRUgBtfPxkzarSJ6Ne7Rfa9HujCeLpkFb28GD-STjywaDvjmKpq_vEEAMglyYEF8Mn2gRv1DNQWLRVGAJYUZDiTbXck/w441-h182/1.jpg" width="441" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-88135317150756401802024-03-04T20:23:00.000-08:002024-03-04T20:28:48.669-08:00The Decline and Fall of the Mitanni EmpireThe Mitanni Empire, a confederation of powerful sub-kings bound by fealty and kinship to a central 'great king,' once stood as a formidable force in the ancient Near East. Emerging around 1600 BC, it wielded control over vast territories stretching from western Iran to the Mediterranean Sea. However, its zenith was followed by a swift descent into oblivion, marked by internal strife, external pressures, and conquests by rival powers.<br /><br />During its ascendancy, the Mitanni Empire exerted dominance over Assyria while contending with the rising Hittite Empire to the north. Yet, the tide turned against Mitanni when Assyrian incursions intensified in the 14th century BC. Led by King Ashur-ubalit I, Assyrian forces seized significant territories, weakening Mitanni's grip on power.<br /><br />Amidst these challenges, internal discord plagued Mitanni as succession disputes among royalty sowed seeds of disunity. This internal fragmentation left the empire vulnerable to external threats, particularly from the Hittites under King Suppiluliuma I. Exploiting Mitanni's weakened state, the Hittites launched devastating attacks, deporting swathes of the population and supplanting them with Hittite settlers.<br /><br />The final blow came under the reign of Shalmaneser, the Assyrian monarch who relentlessly pursued the remnants of Mitanni. By 1244 BC, the once-mighty Mitanni Empire had crumbled, its territories absorbed by rival powers and its legacy relegated to the annals of history.<br /><br />The fall of Mitanni stands as a cautionary tale of the perils of internal strife and external aggression, underscoring the fragility of even the most formidable empires in the face of shifting geopolitical dynamics.<br /><i>The Decline and Fall of the Mitanni Empire<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT79yJS3SXRwCKfZxeoV7DHY4QXvMWbpPZPz-Krm6VF1oBtD2U8tiOzokowqgK_j0Ce5NjTavG9_QHZUh1WCdpLQBSWRVBpP2MPdD5En-QIrzPPfsoqW5ZV1A23LmG5uhXSl9e1iC0_ODnELpXbi41UZeMr2zO4qLodg2VY7_C8XXSiA-dSIUFg1foLx4/s588/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="588" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT79yJS3SXRwCKfZxeoV7DHY4QXvMWbpPZPz-Krm6VF1oBtD2U8tiOzokowqgK_j0Ce5NjTavG9_QHZUh1WCdpLQBSWRVBpP2MPdD5En-QIrzPPfsoqW5ZV1A23LmG5uhXSl9e1iC0_ODnELpXbi41UZeMr2zO4qLodg2VY7_C8XXSiA-dSIUFg1foLx4/w461-h262/1.jpg" width="461" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-73793209705530339402024-02-15T06:08:00.000-08:002024-02-15T06:13:17.889-08:00Mitanni Empire EmergenceThe Mitanni Empire marks a significant chapter in ancient Mesopotamian history, emerging from the influx of Hurrian settlers in the region towards the end of the third millennium BC. These Hurrian migrants established substantial colonies along the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, laying the groundwork for what would eventually become the formidable Mitanni Empire.<br /><br />By approximately 1500 BC, the Hurrian-dominated Mitanni kingdom had ascended to prominence, exerting its influence over northern Mesopotamia. The rise of Mitanni coincided with the disintegration of the Babylonian Empire, a process catalyzed by the defeat of Babylonian king Samsudinata at the hands of the Hittites in 1595 BC. This geopolitical upheaval presented an opportune moment for the Mitanni/Hurrians to consolidate their power and establish a new political order in the region.<br /><br />The Mitanni Empire's ascendancy was characterized by its strategic positioning and adept diplomacy, which enabled it to forge alliances with neighboring powers such as Egypt and the Hittite Empire. These diplomatic maneuvers, coupled with a robust military apparatus and skilled administration, solidified Mitanni's position as a dominant force in the Near East during the Late Bronze Age.<br /><br />Furthermore, the Mitanni Empire fostered a rich cultural milieu, blending Hurrian, Hittite, and Mesopotamian influences to create a vibrant tapestry of art, language, and religious practices. This cultural synthesis not only enriched the fabric of Mitanni society but also facilitated trade and cultural exchange across the region.<br /><br />In conclusion, the emergence of the Mitanni Empire represents a pivotal moment in ancient Mesopotamian history, underscored by the dynamic interplay of migration, geopolitics, and cultural fusion. As a testament to the resilience and ingenuity of the Hurrian people, Mitanni's legacy endures as a testament to the enduring legacy of innovation and adaptability in the annals of human civilization.<br /><i>Mitanni Empire Emergence<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTS6_hvw6OVxtng5jibgKR863yrAirTdDq5B0bQjWJyvEEpSDIIRma4AQDBp7kVB60HncfLCHDs6Oqbt_7V4BcqxW9kyE2W088wKCoocRi60P17jLCPL3XQS63Q26PTdkWX1zmAUAkjcKUpZsNpa-L-7BqY9SYGNTqbvmuK1ge_E3IDxGtxQ6i6zRA9n0/s518/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="181" data-original-width="518" height="166" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTS6_hvw6OVxtng5jibgKR863yrAirTdDq5B0bQjWJyvEEpSDIIRma4AQDBp7kVB60HncfLCHDs6Oqbt_7V4BcqxW9kyE2W088wKCoocRi60P17jLCPL3XQS63Q26PTdkWX1zmAUAkjcKUpZsNpa-L-7BqY9SYGNTqbvmuK1ge_E3IDxGtxQ6i6zRA9n0/w475-h166/1.jpg" width="475" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-74372885890108952312024-01-29T18:57:00.000-08:002024-01-29T18:57:33.542-08:00Ancient Bactria: Hellenistic GloryAncient Bactria, nestled between the formidable Hindu Kush mountain range and the flowing Amu Dar’ya River in northern Afghanistan, traces its roots to the 8th and 7th centuries BC. During the zenith of the Persian Empire in the 500s to mid-300s BC, Bactria emerged as a significant province. This region housed a Persian-speaking population and is renowned as the supposed birthplace of Zoroaster, the esteemed prophet of ancient Persia.<br /><br />Zoroaster, born in the late 7th century BC, likely spent his formative years in Bactria, where Zoroastrianism, the monotheistic faith he founded, may have gained prominence. The presence of this influential figure and his teachings adds a profound layer to Bactria's historical tapestry.<br /><br />Bactra, the capital city of this ancient province, played a pivotal role in the narrative of Bactrian history. In 585-529 BC, Cyrus the Great, the Persian king, incorporated Bactria into the expansive Persian Empire. The nomadic inhabitants of Bactria were assimilated into the empire under the rule of Cyrus, marking a significant chapter in its history.<br /><br />The tide of Bactrian history shifted in 328 BC when Alexander the Great conquered the region, appointing a Greek governor to oversee it as a satrapy. However, in 312 BC, Seleucus Nicator overthrew this governance, leading to a brief period of Bactrian independence.<br /><br />A pivotal moment occurred in 254 BC when Diodotus, the Grecian governor, declared independence from Seleucid rule, establishing the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Under Bactrian Greek rule, the kingdom expanded its territories into the Indian subcontinent, reaching as far as the banks of the Ganges and the frontiers of China by 181 BC. Despite the Greeks constituting a minority in Bactria, their cultural influence on the region remained substantial.<br /><br />However, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom faced internal challenges in maintaining central control over its vast and diverse territories. The 2nd century BC witnessed a decline in their influence north of the Hindu Kush. Ultimately, in 190 BC, the kingdom succumbed to Roman conquest, marking the end of an era for Ancient Bactria. The rich history of this region, from its Persian roots to its Hellenistic phase, contributes to the broader narrative of ancient civilizations in Central Asia.<br /><i>Ancient Bactria: Hellenistic Glory</i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-23296756456733069142024-01-09T07:14:00.000-08:002024-01-09T07:14:36.844-08:00Bengal Sultanate: Origins and ExpansionThe Bengal Sultanate, a self-governing entity encompassing modern-day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal, and the Myanmarese state of Rakhine, thrived from the 14th to the 16th centuries. It underwent the governance of diverse dynasties with origins rooted in Turkic, Arab, Persian, Bengali, and Abyssinian backgrounds.<br /><br />In the 1200s, Bengal gradually became assimilated into the Delhi Sultanate, starting with Bakhtiar Khilji's capture of Gauda between 1202 and 1204 under the rule of Muhammad of Ghor.<br /><br />Following the era of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq from the Tughlaq Dynasty, the Bengal Sultanate emerged in the mid-14th century. Bengal's governors declared independence, resulting in the establishment of the Bengal Sultanate in 1352 by Shams-al-Din Ilyas Shah, who conquered Lakhnauti, Sonargaon, and Satgaon.<br /><br />Shams al-Din Ilyas Shah, the founder of the Ilyas Shahi Dynasty, faced a conflict with the Delhi Sultanate, and in 1353, Firoz Shah Tughluq triumphed over him. Despite Firoz's significant actions, such as the massacre of numerous Bengalis and the temporary displacement of Shams al-Din Ilyas Shah from Pandua, the delta remained unannexed.<br /><br />Bengal agreed to pay tribute to the Delhi Sultan, yet Ilyas Shah maintained control over Bengal despite the relinquishment of some conquered territories. Sultan Shams al-Din Ilyas Shah expanded his dominion by defeating the rulers of Orissa, extending to Chilika Lake, and conducting raids in Jajpur and Cuttack. Returning to Bengal with spoils, including 44 elephants, Ilyas Shah founded the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, governing Bengal for fifteen decades.<br /><i>Bengal Sultanate: Origins and Expansion</i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-82685692508135255612023-09-18T18:49:00.001-07:002023-09-18T18:49:00.142-07:00The Rise of the Athenian Empire(454 – 404 BC)The Athenian Empire emerged as a result of their bolstered naval capabilities acquired to counter the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC. The Hellenic league, which was formed to resist the Persians, was distinctly led by Sparta, with Sparta overseeing meetings and providing leaders for both land and naval forces.<br /><br />The Athenians held a keen interest in establishing trade connections with Greek cities that were still under Persian rule, with the goal of liberating fellow Greeks from Persian influence. In Athens, they initiated the reconstruction of their city walls, a move that faced opposition from Sparta. Themistocles employed tactics to stall the Spartans until the Athenian walls were fully rebuilt, exemplifying evident power dynamics and strategic maneuvering.<br /><br />Subsequently, Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnese peninsula withdrew from the conflict, leaving Athens as the predominant force among the cities that continued the resistance. In response, Athens established a fresh league of states, termed the Delian League, a voluntary coalition with the aim of countering Persian aggression, although under Athenian leadership.<br /><br />By approximately 446/5 BC, the Delian League had evolved into what could be considered the Athenian empire. Despite achieving peace with Persia, Athens maintained a strong grip on its allies. The league's military forces freed Greek communities from Persian control and asserted dominance over the eastern Mediterranean waters. Most member states provided an annual tribute, which Athens allocated towards constructing and crewing warships.<br /><br />The initial action of the Delian League around 476/5 BC was the capture of Eion, a Persian stronghold situated along the Strymon River. Following this, the Athenians expelled pirates from Scyrus, taking control of the region. They subsequently subdued Carystus, a city that had sided with Persia during the conflict, and in 467 BC, quelled a rebellion in Naxos. This consistent pattern emerged: confronting Persians, annexing territories, and compelling cities to remain within the league.<br /><br />Athens assumed the role of a policing authority within the alliance, reinstating cities into the league that had breached their allegiance. They intervened in internal conflicts within member cities, often favoring those supporting democratic principles. This marked the outset of Athenian imperialism.<br /><br />To solidify their dominion, Pericles initiated a policy in 450 BC to establish kleruchiai—semi-colonial settlements—tethered to Athens, serving as garrisons to maintain control over the vast territory of the league.<br /><br />In 437 BC, Athenians founded Amphipolis as a colony in the Chalcidice region, attaining significance due to its abundant natural resources like timber, pitch, and metals. The empire became self-sustaining in terms of both economy and military, with the fleet functioning as a versatile tool.<br /><br />Ultimately, concerns regarding Athens' escalating power triggered the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and its allies, resulting in an extended and costly war of attrition. Athens' defeat in 404 BC marked the downfall of the empire.<br /><i>The Rise of the Athenian Empire(454 – 404 BC)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4pMK-U__q-5L08-3gBuZ4psFi4fIriuj7GW07uhqqIqp7mdINWHG0vy85mupdBZv2HQHBQD3b9b0ZLMyuQJ3do9yENs_MZBgC7XHWDhp6j13i6BezhvxFR6lM51Rx6qnWM9c73btk-D7EEVw_kWcqyjJ10EmPyjzNXxbkIoosrZqv80qg8gknoJfcnG8/s8749/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="5719" data-original-width="8749" height="309" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4pMK-U__q-5L08-3gBuZ4psFi4fIriuj7GW07uhqqIqp7mdINWHG0vy85mupdBZv2HQHBQD3b9b0ZLMyuQJ3do9yENs_MZBgC7XHWDhp6j13i6BezhvxFR6lM51Rx6qnWM9c73btk-D7EEVw_kWcqyjJ10EmPyjzNXxbkIoosrZqv80qg8gknoJfcnG8/w473-h309/1.jpg" width="473" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-75454313021448633572023-08-24T00:01:00.002-07:002023-08-24T00:01:07.188-07:00Land of Punt The Land of Punt is thought to be among the limited foreign regions that Egypt interacted with, primarily driven by its economic advantages.<br /><br />Approximately 4500 years ago, the ancient Egyptians embarked on journeys to Punt, making occasional visits to the area for about 1300 years. In Punt, the Egyptians engaged in trade, exchanging their agricultural products, textiles, and other goods for rare materials, precious woods, and an array of exotic products that were hard to come by or unavailable in Egypt.<br /><br />Punt was renowned for its production and export of valuable resources like gold, aromatic substances, fragrant resins, ebony, ivory, tortoise shells, and even wild animals. This region's existence is documented in the records of ancient Egyptian trade expeditions.<br /><br />The most renowned mentions of Punt stem from inscriptions tied to Queen Hatshepsut's famous expedition in 1493 BC, a significant event during the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. This interaction between the two lands resulted in the successful transfer of living trees to Egypt, marking an early achievement in transplanting foreign plant life.<br /><br />The ancient Egyptians called the Land of Punt the "Divine Land" or the "Land of Gods." When interpreted as the "sacred land" or the "ancestral land," it signified that the ancient Egyptians held Punt in high regard as the homeland of their ancestors. They believed it lay in the direction of the sunrise, where the sun god Ra was believed to reside.<br /><br />To the ancient Egyptians, the land of Punt, characterized by homes resembling beehives made of reeds, perched on stilts above water, held an aura of fascination and mystery. It served as an extraordinary destination for exploration and hosting visitors. The royalty of Punt even made multiple journeys to the court of the Pharaoh in Egypt.<br /><br />In depictions, the people of Punt were initially portrayed with reddish-brown skin and distinctive facial features, often depicted with long hair. However, by the 18th dynasty, they seemed to have adopted a shorter hairstyle.<br /><br />Punt gained renewed attention in the 1850s when the Egyptian Antiquities Services began clearing temples in Upper Egypt. The precise location of Punt remains unknown. Over the centuries, ongoing debates among scholars and historians have presented credible evidence to bolster their respective assertions.<br /><i>Land of Punt<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikdo5H9ZSIjFTwHhW3xJSFkjVZWV1KKm9Ndb90BcjTmwq8gLlstH7wtSD84MW0Anf12Das7ImwpcE13B-RlaStO8cbfKFFXi_Y_8yz5Mty7WDbC78Bd2V1NOKNh_LLGopisEN2mhnlj2rRxoJeiaYPklCMwdc6NShO1Oddj3nXFbEOD2vNIDoi40_lX7E/s1280/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="257" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikdo5H9ZSIjFTwHhW3xJSFkjVZWV1KKm9Ndb90BcjTmwq8gLlstH7wtSD84MW0Anf12Das7ImwpcE13B-RlaStO8cbfKFFXi_Y_8yz5Mty7WDbC78Bd2V1NOKNh_LLGopisEN2mhnlj2rRxoJeiaYPklCMwdc6NShO1Oddj3nXFbEOD2vNIDoi40_lX7E/w457-h257/1.jpg" width="457" /></a></div> </i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-370943130589632262023-07-26T06:49:00.002-07:002023-07-26T07:25:24.543-07:00History of Viking in Greenland The Vikings were involved in plundering, trading, and establishing Norse settlements throughout northwestern Europe, including Iceland. According to Icelandic legends, around 985 A.D., a explorer named Erik the Red sailed westward and founded two settlements in the southern regions of Greenland. Erik named the island "Greenland" (Grœnland in Old Norse, Grænland in modern Icelandic, Grønland in modern Danish and Norwegian).<br /><br />Despite the challenging and icy terrain, the Norse people managed to sustain themselves by finding fertile areas along the southwestern coast.<br /><br />Survival in these lands required a combination of stock farming – raising livestock for grazing – and hunting seals, caribou, as well as undertaking hunting expeditions further north to Nordsetur, Disko Bay, where they pursued walruses, narwhals, and even polar bears.<br /><br />The Norse settlers inhabited three distinct regions in southwestern Greenland: the larger Eastern Settlement, the smaller Western Settlement, and the still smaller Middle Settlement (often considered part of the Eastern one). Recent estimates indicate that the combined population of these settlements reached its peak between 2,000 and 10,000 people.<br /><br />Around 1200 A.D., during the height of their culture, approximately 3,000 Norse farmers raised cattle, sheep, and goats on the island. Norse society prospered, engaging in extensive trade with Europe and receiving requests for luxury items like walrus teeth, for which they traveled great distances along Greenland's shores to obtain.<br /><br />Changes in climate and the beginning of the Little Ice Age prompted the Norse, at the start of the 13th century A.D., to consolidate and migrate everyone to the southern part of Greenland, where farming remained feasible despite colder summers and longer winters.<br /><br />In 1126, Greenland gained a bishop, and in 1261, it became integrated into Norway. Subsequently, in 1380, Norway united with Denmark, bringing Greenland under Danish rule.<br /><br />After surviving for nearly five centuries in Greenland, the day arrived when not a single Norseman could be found anywhere in the country.<br /><i>History of Viking in Greenland<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRZmzOWV5veS_rChdw8Hr7_-F5JayWHShfGTxAcfKeGRkfzTPAO7rTpAL3jwKJ6HbMTSm2Ua-04edC0Dh8D02dmVFgbpqMgnzbSBrYIomeqVJzCKGzxF2b3Eojfssf9qD0Zh6xGEutyWQMwTqMjoLGMsuLpv165xf037hGPb0_8hWtrleMVn7CfqYOPMo/s1200/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="675" data-original-width="1200" height="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRZmzOWV5veS_rChdw8Hr7_-F5JayWHShfGTxAcfKeGRkfzTPAO7rTpAL3jwKJ6HbMTSm2Ua-04edC0Dh8D02dmVFgbpqMgnzbSBrYIomeqVJzCKGzxF2b3Eojfssf9qD0Zh6xGEutyWQMwTqMjoLGMsuLpv165xf037hGPb0_8hWtrleMVn7CfqYOPMo/w440-h247/1.jpg" width="440" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-72065931656404039212023-06-30T21:52:00.002-07:002023-06-30T21:53:33.169-07:00First Sealand dynasty (c. 1732–1460 BC)Babylon remained a minor territory for a century after it was founded, until the reign of its sixth Amorite ruler. Hammurabi ruled Babylon from about 1792 to 1750 BC. He is noted for his surviving set of laws, once considered the oldest promulgation of laws in human history. <br /><br />After the death of Hammurabi, his empire began to disintegrate rapidly. Under his successor Samsu-iluna (1749-1712 BC), the far south of Mesopotamia was lost to a native Akkadian king, called Ilum-ma-ili, Ili-ma-ilu, the founder of the First Sealand dynasty, probably around 1720 BC. <br /><br />The Sealand Dynasty remained free of Babylon for the next 272 years. The Sealand Kingdom formed as a secessionist state in the area corresponding roughly to ancient Sumer, arose from the rebellion against Babylonian hegemony, outlived the Amorite dynasty in Babylon, before being reclaimed by Babylon under Kassite rule. <br /><br />The dynasty, which had broken free of the short lived, and by this time crumbling Old Babylonian Empire, was named for the province in the far south of Mesopotamia, a swampy region berefts of large settlements which gradually expanded southwards with the silting up of the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.<br /><b>First Sealand dynasty (c. 1732–1460 BC)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqgRJeQIcCSMvd1nfoyGhz6rJKxWBUpfqGgwZkfqVLez8ywEfZ2TXYHPbsl-AEP1SN_rfz4HbbuKmY5OsDPMxFezIDxQLXwSqNLKGmITCU-8ImZienmt4aYI-DnDk6xz2Z_pQaJ4v1-IeywbXZJwIHWr03MWS7Rb-BX5Hzud-E8Pbs9a_gCM5aqmxuciI/s800/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="502" data-original-width="800" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqgRJeQIcCSMvd1nfoyGhz6rJKxWBUpfqGgwZkfqVLez8ywEfZ2TXYHPbsl-AEP1SN_rfz4HbbuKmY5OsDPMxFezIDxQLXwSqNLKGmITCU-8ImZienmt4aYI-DnDk6xz2Z_pQaJ4v1-IeywbXZJwIHWr03MWS7Rb-BX5Hzud-E8Pbs9a_gCM5aqmxuciI/w423-h266/1.jpg" width="423" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-3770664274414526642023-06-06T07:10:00.006-07:002023-06-06T07:10:48.931-07:00Himyarites (110 BC - 525 AD)Himyarites, originally, an important tribe in the ancient Sabaean kingdom of southwestern Arabia; later, the powerful rulers of much of southern Arabia from about 115 BC to about 525 AD. <br /><br />During the early days of the Himyarite Kingdom, the region was mainly under the domination of the Qataban Kingdom, which ruled most parts of Yemen between 500 BC and 110 BC. The Himyarite Kingdom was named after its founder, Himyar. The story of the Himyarite Kingdom begins in 110 BC when the tribe of Himyar decided to separate from the Qataban kingdom, another kingdom based in Yemen. <br /><br />The Himyarites, originally, an important tribe in the ancient Sabaean kingdom of southwestern Arabia; later, the powerful rulers of much of southern Arabia from about 115 BC to about 525 AD.<br /><br />During the early days of the Himyarite Kingdom, the region was mainly under the domination of the Qataban Kingdom, which ruled most parts of Yemen between 500 BC and 110 BC. The Himyarite Kingdom was named after its founder, Himyar. The story of the Himyarite Kingdom begins in 110 BC when the tribe of Himyar decided to separate from the Qataban kingdom, another kingdom based in Yemen. <br /><br />The Himyarite Kingdom was established around 110 BC. It quickly became a large Empire, controlling important parts of the Arabian Peninsula. <br /><br />The Himyarites were able to form their own kingdom because of the discovery of a prosperous trade route on the Red Sea coast. <br /><br />From the first century BC to the second century AD, the Himyarites absorbed the Sabean and Qataban kingdoms, as well as several local tribes. The Himyarites established their capital at Dhafar. <br /><br />The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 AD. Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them and regained Sana'a around 180 AD. Himyar became prominent in the region, notably after conquering the legendary Kingdom of Saba, made in 280 AD. Saba had been an ancient powerhouse, controlling the entire area for almost a thousand years. <br /><br />Then, the Kingdom of Hadramaout was invaded and thus ruled by the Himyarites. Therefore, the Himyarite king Shammir Yuharish fully controlled modern-day territories of Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. <br /><br />This centralization of power unified the entire region of southern Arabia under a single government for the first time. <br /><br />Once Himyar had become unified, it sought to maintain good relations with its neighbors by focusing on the exchange of goods from abroad. They had access to a port on their southern coast that lay along an important sea route from Egypt to Asia, and they traded luxury goods such as ivory and spices, acting as a waypoint between the Roman Empire, East Africa, and India. <br /><br />By 515 AD, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention. In 525, after several unsuccessful attempts, Aksumite invaders finally crushed the Himyarites. Himyarites (110 BC - 525 AD) was established around 110 BC. It quickly became a large Empire, controlling important parts of the Arabian Peninsula. The Himyarites were able to form their own kingdom because of the discovery of a prosperous trade route on the Red Sea coast. <br /><br />From the first century BC to the second century AD, the Himyarites absorbed the Sabean and Qataban kingdoms, as well as several local tribes. The Himyarites established their capital at Dhafar. <br /><br />The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 AD. Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them and regained Sana'a around 180 AD. Himyar became prominent in the region, notably after conquering the legendary Kingdom of Saba, made in 280 AD. Saba had been an ancient powerhouse, controlling the entire area for almost a thousand years. <br /><br />Then, the Kingdom of Hadramaout was invaded and thus ruled by the Himyarites. Therefore, the Himyarite king Shammir Yuharish fully controlled modern-day territories of Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. <br /><br />This centralization of power unified the entire region of southern Arabia under a single government for the first time. <br /><br />Once Himyar had become unified, it sought to maintain good relations with its neighbors by focusing on the exchange of goods from abroad. They had access to a port on their southern coast that lay along an important sea route from Egypt to Asia, and they traded luxury goods such as ivory and spices, acting as a waypoint between the Roman Empire, East Africa, and India. <br /><br />By 515 AD, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention. In 525, after several unsuccessful attempts, Aksumite invaders finally crushed the Himyarites.<br /><b>Himyarites (110 BC - 525 AD)</b><br /><b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKTYerzZQD9YFwn1D8oovymLsQSTWkLaWCSz6b4w-gG22KaaYpAvw6T5ALgXZNYzRhHjzw6zdsV7cuoUUiVgN8B1aJXluh9N6D1Ap31u-3Sh_7ehXfc8dN8bl03NaFJBVLGhZdBEvLCadHDohN6r1MhJ749rWG3G33C4j25JwZsAM5xnneHIsmbWVs/s493/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="275" data-original-width="493" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKTYerzZQD9YFwn1D8oovymLsQSTWkLaWCSz6b4w-gG22KaaYpAvw6T5ALgXZNYzRhHjzw6zdsV7cuoUUiVgN8B1aJXluh9N6D1Ap31u-3Sh_7ehXfc8dN8bl03NaFJBVLGhZdBEvLCadHDohN6r1MhJ749rWG3G33C4j25JwZsAM5xnneHIsmbWVs/w452-h252/1.jpg" width="452" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-36768115035257640942023-05-05T18:46:00.003-07:002023-05-05T18:46:57.744-07:00The last King of Sumerian: Lugalzagesi (reigned c. 2375–50 BC)Lugalzagesi ruled many Sumerian city-states, and he took the royal title "king of the land (lugal kalam-ma)." <br /><br />Lugalzagesi, prince of Umma who became king of Uruk, was the last independent Sumerian ruler before Sargon of Akkad conquered Sumer around the turn of the twenty‐fourth century BCE. Lugalzagesi was the first king to describe the territory or region, as opposed to separate cities, over which he could claim sovereignty in his royal inscription. <br /><br />He first conquered the major cities of Lagash (c. 2375 BC) and Kish, then overcame the Sumerian cities of Ur and Uruk (he alone represents the 3rd dynasty of Uruk). After uniting all of Sumer, he extended his dominion to the Mediterranean coast. <br /><br />The last king of the Early Dynastic Period prior to the rise of the Akkadian polity under Sargon (c. mid-24th century BC), Lugalzagesi was able to carve out his own place in history as a king who united Mesopotamia for approximately twenty-five years prior to the rise of Akkad. He hailed from the eternally embattled town of Umma and eventually established control of Sumer and Akkad for a short period of time, basing himself at Uruk. <br /><br />He was defeated by Sargon of Agade. Sargon was praised by ancient scribes as one of the great kings and an epoch-maker in Mesopotamian history, namely, "the first king of World Empire". Sargon defeats Lugalzagesi and marches him to Nippur, Enlil’s city- This is an ultimate humiliation as Lugalzagesi’s patron god is Enlil.<br />The last King of Sumerian: Lugalzagesi (reigned c. 2375–50 BC)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhd5AqzE0xHRRcBIFXR32pxJq3ahaZ6POkEEqobbKQTnCWqmFUPs7GUh8K23LUJAYLqj621zUZddlp0ktpsYlJHTjpMx9M9DptCVbEdOQimH5vhqQQ6ACm68G7-ASg3nbPOejxC326Xp0dAjAzOrMO7y6l_x32g4iAJ9ui2AxBFzfONct5oHfF4zaaE/s400/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="254" data-original-width="400" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhd5AqzE0xHRRcBIFXR32pxJq3ahaZ6POkEEqobbKQTnCWqmFUPs7GUh8K23LUJAYLqj621zUZddlp0ktpsYlJHTjpMx9M9DptCVbEdOQimH5vhqQQ6ACm68G7-ASg3nbPOejxC326Xp0dAjAzOrMO7y6l_x32g4iAJ9ui2AxBFzfONct5oHfF4zaaE/w444-h282/1.jpg" width="444" /></a></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-19002319277696793182023-03-27T19:40:00.003-07:002023-03-27T19:40:09.840-07:00Aksumite EmpireAksumite Empire had been founded by the Semitised Hamitic peoples of the present-day provinces of Eritrea and Tigre. Ruled by the Aksumites, it existed from approximately 80 BC to AD 825. The polity was centered in the city of Axum and grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. <br /><br />The Aksumites grew rich and powerful thanks to their control of Red Sea trade, particularly in ivory and gold, and was thought to be the greatest market in the north east. <br /><br />It was the center from which the Semitic language and culture and the Christian religion seeped south until, by the thirteenth century, the provinces of Begemdir, Gojjam and Shoa had ceased to be pagan. <br /><br />Axum elaborately carved stelae and the ruins of palaces and other edifices attest to high attainments in building technology. Its towns included the eponymous capital and Adulis, a Red Sea port of international repute. <br /><br />Adulis, the main trade port of the Aksumite Kingdom was about 340 miles, or five days’ sail, south of Theron. Pliny calls this region ‘Anzania’ and uses accounts from the Augustan era in his description of its resources. <br /><br />There were legends that Adulis was founded by runaway slaves from Egypt and the settlement was therefore known as Freeman’s Town. <br /><br />The Aksumites controlled a powerful empire covering much of northeast Africa and southern Arabia during the 1st millennium A.D. The conversion of the Aksumite king Ezana to Christianity in the 330s ushered in a new chapter in the country’s history, making it one of the world’s earliest Christian states, and meaning it was closely tied with Byzantine Egypt. <br /><br />The prime exports from the Aksumite Kingdom were ivory, tortoise and turtle-shell. This trade was highly lucrative since the Romans had a great desire for expensive craft items made from exotic eastern materials. <br /><br />Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1stcentury AD (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various Islamic powers leagued against it. <br /><br />The influence of South Arabia would see the dominance of Aksum challenged in the 7th and 8th centuries. Combined with its fertile lands drying up and trading routes blocked by emerging powers in the Middle East, the kingdom gradually declined.<br /><b>Aksumite Empire<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-TmXpeCJlo4feOjy0a-uysxFMgbzolmXH41rvMMct10ryjlXkGJ-47oxdOaWblnyu_ee2eZGIadmXWGaGXtwxnq1hW5ZHXQwLpfF5cCYDf3l3p6OpdmMKULtrU7O4m-ASbSWAdJoP4oMBrmSXTQjKnGpEBg8FU2yV_h1v1o4vdJOIggpbvowefA5D/s450/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="450" data-original-width="340" height="508" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-TmXpeCJlo4feOjy0a-uysxFMgbzolmXH41rvMMct10ryjlXkGJ-47oxdOaWblnyu_ee2eZGIadmXWGaGXtwxnq1hW5ZHXQwLpfF5cCYDf3l3p6OpdmMKULtrU7O4m-ASbSWAdJoP4oMBrmSXTQjKnGpEBg8FU2yV_h1v1o4vdJOIggpbvowefA5D/w384-h508/1.jpg" width="384" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-64964157033198898652023-02-27T23:10:00.005-08:002023-02-27T23:10:24.729-08:00Moche cultureMoche culture flourished on the north Peruvian coastal desert with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo, Peru from about 100 to 700 AD. <br /><br />The Moche culture was highly sophisticated. The Moche created monumental ritual temples, expansive irrigation systems, and a prolific art tradition that found expression in various media, including painted and moulded ceramic vessels. <br /><br />Moche skilled ceramists produced a great variety of exquisitely decorated vessels. The decoration is sometimes painted on the smooth surface of vessels; other times it is tridimensional, forming the vessel shape itself. <br /><br />Moche pottery was used for everything from eating and drinking to human sacrifices made to the gods. The most intricate pieces were used for ceremonial purposes and often buried with elite rulers. The Moche practiced a polytheistic religion. The Moche religion worshipped several gods. The Moche goddess Si is the goddess of the moon. Si is the most powerful god in the Moche religion because the moon is always in the sky, even in the daytime, and the moon influences the seasons and weather. <br /><br />The Moche were impressive metalworkers, primarily using gold, silver, copper and their alloys. In addition to jewellery, they made tools, weapons, headdresses, ceremonial attire and important ornamental pieces for their rituals. Working in gold and silver, Moche artists were adept at hammering, soldering, and setting stones, as well as developing a process to make a copper-gold alloy appear to be solid gold—a technique known as depletion gilding. <br /><br />The Moche were innovators on many political, ideological, and artistic levels. They developed a powerful elite and specialized craft production, and instituted labor tribute payments. <br /><br />The Moche also developed irrigation systems that contributed to their civilization's success and growth. The Moche irrigation system was extremely efficient. As the economy relied heavily on agriculture and internal trading relationships, the irrigation system ensured their entire region had water for their crops.<br /><b>Moche culture<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrmkuo2-hIsYLa8F3s4kXLb_V8f8xWN3MPMjnsA64u_g1X0yzfkNhdLrBlBRhFI13OcRWqU2QtnU7boGK8UMOkpagjGCEMxMz7ete5LNq15D-De6rfPZfr1BAgh2l-oMfN81Tx4NC8ZgGkEQZSLnrF5OfMLzihbxmVhUANDN6E98ywWgQyDlLeSi-V/s600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="422" height="507" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrmkuo2-hIsYLa8F3s4kXLb_V8f8xWN3MPMjnsA64u_g1X0yzfkNhdLrBlBRhFI13OcRWqU2QtnU7boGK8UMOkpagjGCEMxMz7ete5LNq15D-De6rfPZfr1BAgh2l-oMfN81Tx4NC8ZgGkEQZSLnrF5OfMLzihbxmVhUANDN6E98ywWgQyDlLeSi-V/w356-h507/1.jpg" width="356" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-1988233482557071362023-01-21T05:53:00.005-08:002023-01-21T05:53:48.564-08:00History of Kurdish peopleThe name Kurd can be dated with certainty to the time of the tribes’ conversion to Islam in the 7th century AD. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims, and among them are many who practice Sufism and other mystical sects. <br /><br />Before Islam, the majority of Kurds followed a western Iranic pre-Zoroastrian faith which derived directly from Indo-Iranian tradition, some elements of this faith survived in Yezidism, Yarsanism and Kurdish Alevism. <br /><br />Kurds lost their lands when the Ottoman Empire took over most Kurdish-held territory in the 1500s. Kurds were mostly nomadic until the end of World War I and the breakup of the Ottoman Empire. <br /><br />Kurds have never achieved nation-state status, making Kurdistan a non-governmental region and one of the largest stateless nations in the world. <br /><br />The 1916 Sykes-Picot agreement divides the Middle East into British and French zones of influence and delineates the borders of the modern Middle East. After World War One and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the victorious Western allies made provision for a Kurdish state in the 1920 Treaty of Sevres. <br /><br />Such hopes were dashed three years later, however, when the Treaty of Lausanne, which set the boundaries of modern Turkey, made no provision for a Kurdish state. Since then, the Kurds have made multiple attempts to set up their own state, but their efforts have been in vain. <br /><br />Kurds make up about 10% of the population in Syria, 19% of the population of Turkey, 15-20% of the population of Iraq and are one of the largest ethnic minorities in Iran.<br /><b>History of Kurdish people<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDYNoAwUpH2mkuePf9VMlWX6jR_nRkU7ef-3Z4qpoY6NZI3QNkERfG7aUO5v-f1JHdaU3eWzJglzvDcBVMmG__qW-TZkaeUD3fbGNe-FFdC25Xkg9tAWfsQXTGbR1Uum-eqODf5JcAcqYfb-SMW9Lr76e0RGps0HLOgePZjNAvooj8fyPz1BVyi3mH/s800/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="550" data-original-width="800" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDYNoAwUpH2mkuePf9VMlWX6jR_nRkU7ef-3Z4qpoY6NZI3QNkERfG7aUO5v-f1JHdaU3eWzJglzvDcBVMmG__qW-TZkaeUD3fbGNe-FFdC25Xkg9tAWfsQXTGbR1Uum-eqODf5JcAcqYfb-SMW9Lr76e0RGps0HLOgePZjNAvooj8fyPz1BVyi3mH/w462-h317/1.jpg" width="462" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-6972690843674664672022-12-06T20:35:00.008-08:002022-12-06T20:35:50.069-08:00Khanate of Bukhara (1500 to 1920)It received this name when the capital of the Shaybanid state (1506–1598) was moved to Bukhara. The khanate of Bukhara, which reigned between 1500 and 1920, was the longest surviving Turkish-Islamic State after the Ottoman Empire. The Shaybanid dynasty ruled the Khanate from 1506 to 1598. Under their rule, Bukhara became a center of arts and literature and educational reforms were introduced. <br /><br />From 1533 to 1540, Bukhara briefly became its capital during the reign of Ubaydallah Khan. The khanate reached its greatest extent and influence under its penultimate Abu'l-Khayrid ruler, the scholarly Abdullah Khan II (r. 1557–1598). <br /><br />In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Khanate was ruled by the Janid Dynasty (Astrakhanids or Hashtarkhanids). They were the last Genghisid descendants to rule Bukhara. <br /><br />In 1740 it was conquered by Nadir Shah. After his death, in 1747, the khanate was controlled by the descendants of the Uzbek emir Khudayar Bi, through the prime ministerial position of ataliq. <br /><br />In 1785, his descendant, Shah Murad, formalized the family's dynastic rule (Manghit dynasty), and the khanate became the Emirate of Bukhara. <br /><br />The late nineteenth century saw commercial and diplomatic ties with Russia give way to armed conflict soon after the Russian conquest of Tashkent (1865). In 1920 the former khanate became the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, dissolving into the Soviet republic of Uzbekistan in 1924.<br /><b>Khanate of Bukhara (1500 to 1920)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQhJwq9SnyhMJP85E3lvBzb75XLCil1cymSql6qJQhbNOxTgH7B2U57LTgXCpU-7meJPIY76j6k7Yj0SP-YNxbYux3rEV8nBtwP6HE7LG1khbkhBgVW2BS3QzUqIVTiEygSPdci95FO_bn6fxqlMiUeCUaVF8AMfEOVauA5xdDrVDHqNEOZ5GpZBcU/s1800/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1800" height="325" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQhJwq9SnyhMJP85E3lvBzb75XLCil1cymSql6qJQhbNOxTgH7B2U57LTgXCpU-7meJPIY76j6k7Yj0SP-YNxbYux3rEV8nBtwP6HE7LG1khbkhBgVW2BS3QzUqIVTiEygSPdci95FO_bn6fxqlMiUeCUaVF8AMfEOVauA5xdDrVDHqNEOZ5GpZBcU/w488-h325/1.jpg" width="488" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-21835662618310235652022-11-12T06:19:00.003-08:002022-11-12T06:19:28.264-08:00Middle Babylonian PeriodSumu-la-El (c.1880–1845) was the founder kingdom of Babylonia, building a royal palace and a great fortification wall around the city. Babylon became a major military power under Amorite king Hammurabi, who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC. He brought much of southern and central Mesopotamia under unified Babylonian rule, creating an empire called Babylonia. <br /><br />The Middle Babylonian period, also known as the Kassite period, in southern Mesopotamia is dated from c. 1595 BC to 1155 BC. Modern chronology uses the sack of Babylon by a Hittite army in 1595 B.C. as the dividing line between the Old Babylonian (1894–1595 BC.) and Middle Babylonian (1595–1155 BC.). <br /><br />Cities in the deep south broke off from the Babylonian state (they became known as the First Sealand Dynasty), and the Kassites, a non-Babylonian people identifiable by their distinct language took part in regional fighting. The Kassites were originally Highlanders from the Zagros Mountains and later overran Babylonia after the Hittite destruction of Babylon at the end of the Middle Bronze Age in 1595 BC. <br /><br />The Kassites first appear as a political factor in Babylonia in 1742 (or 1741) BC, when they were opposed by both Samsiluna and Rīm-Sîn I’s. Kassites penetrated from the central Zagros via the lower Diyala region into northern Babylonia, notably the Sippar region during the late Old Babylonian period. <br /><br />Following the collapse of the Old Babylonian Kingdom in 1595 BC, a dynasty identified as Kassite took hold in northern Babylonia and by 1475 BC had extended control over the south as well. They set up a Dynasty which lasted for more than five hundred years: the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history. <br /><br />At the end of the Middle Babylonian period, power in southern Mesopotamia returned to Isin in the deep south (identified in modern chronology as the Second Dynasty of Isin, ca. 1155–1026 BC.), and the Elamite forces were first repelled, then attacked, when king Nebuchadnezzar I (ca. 1125–1104 BC.) sacked Susa in ca. 1100 BC.<br /><b>Middle Babylonian Period<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsR45qzyx8HfS3H4CkN_d8rkX7Rsp0Y3gBC9UbGG-zvJoum9Lml8BuCYzDBFv9UsvQZW7GPn5kRf5RLcbH7HKkbFokGYbPEHgMaT2VakKV6Xi1vYseEzb2GKVkZVNEyu_rLrDJEqS4VcuoXsqriSxQ2NWR4_yvo1aiZK-TpRo-5xXIqoLSDgFe9X8I/s770/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="510" data-original-width="770" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsR45qzyx8HfS3H4CkN_d8rkX7Rsp0Y3gBC9UbGG-zvJoum9Lml8BuCYzDBFv9UsvQZW7GPn5kRf5RLcbH7HKkbFokGYbPEHgMaT2VakKV6Xi1vYseEzb2GKVkZVNEyu_rLrDJEqS4VcuoXsqriSxQ2NWR4_yvo1aiZK-TpRo-5xXIqoLSDgFe9X8I/w477-h316/1.jpg" width="477" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-23815424920121230702022-10-06T05:21:00.004-07:002022-10-06T05:21:33.588-07:00Numidia - ancient kingdom of the Numidians (202BC – 46BC)The Kingdom of Numidia was formed in 202 BC and lasted around 156 years to 46 BC. The Numidians were a Berber people who emerged from the edge of the desert in the late 2nd millennium BC, and despite the harshness of their environment (or perhaps because of it), they eventually became the most powerful people in North Africa. <br /><br />The North African Berber kingdom of Numidia was originally inhabited by two tribal groups, with the Masaesyli located in the west and the Massylii in the east. In 206 BC, the new King of Massylii sided with Rome, leading Syphax of Masaesyli to ally himself with Carthage. <br /><br />During the Second Punic War also known as The War Against Hannibal (218–201 BC), Masinissa, king of the Massylii, defeated Syphax of the Masaesyli to unify Numidia into one kingdom. The Romans proved to be victorious and awarded the conquered territory of Numidia to their ally, Masinissa of the Massylii. <br /><br />For nearly 50 years Masinissa retained the support of Rome as he tried to turn the Numidian pastoralists into peasant farmers. He also seized much Carthaginian territory and probably hoped to rule all of North Africa. He was one of the most powerful men in North Africa. He died in 148 BC, and at this time his empire extended all the way from Mauretania through former Carthagian territory Cyrenaica, an eastern coastal region of what is modern day Libya. <br /><br />Masinissa was succeeded by his son Micipsa, who was given charge of the Kingdom’s Capital and Treasure, while his brothers owned the office of Justice and War.<br /><b>Numidia - ancient kingdom of the Numidians (202BC – 46BC)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhm58hJgA8DQUW_Ievqrgraqc4r-LAZSxfgLH_69zd3HOdwrfHVqLBk-e1oFyherK6x1ktKGBnHdSg8rWbmtpwYQ7t-zZafPHQYoPAWAFdOZH0sT2sFW3AUoIYhcVv5g0lFe_KtarMLu-voHVp-OTY4hPMaZcaSPiSBu7T0byDUnbV0rKe7xtw755zK/s1125/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="853" data-original-width="1125" height="333" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhm58hJgA8DQUW_Ievqrgraqc4r-LAZSxfgLH_69zd3HOdwrfHVqLBk-e1oFyherK6x1ktKGBnHdSg8rWbmtpwYQ7t-zZafPHQYoPAWAFdOZH0sT2sFW3AUoIYhcVv5g0lFe_KtarMLu-voHVp-OTY4hPMaZcaSPiSBu7T0byDUnbV0rKe7xtw755zK/w438-h333/1.jpg" width="438" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-28657125748191637892022-08-30T20:47:00.003-07:002022-08-30T20:47:14.280-07:00Xianbei Empire (93 – 234 CE)During the 2nd to 3rd centuries ce, nomadic groups under the name Xianbei grew dramatically in power in the wake of the collapsing Xiongnu Empire along the northern frontier of the Chinese Han Empire. The name Xianbei refers to a confederation of tribes that spoke different languages and came from varying regions. <br /><br />The Xianbei were pastoral nomads and excellent cattle breers. They were famous for their horses, sheep, and especially for the horns of the Saiga antelope whose horn delivered a superb material for bows.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQj219Wu_fbQgpiECTkn7IrI8yJrwE79XRiahvoWkOoitVRWJKah1i9zrWuaM3Pcz2jNrlX2mnxjfcvwgjXbx19q8ZGh_7mEM_BkGRDkE3FP2AV965ZP6DuVAnFE2wfeGwwr2VjNXG5nt4FsKGoTXjHt-nUDWXg0ra8n5hvpTD7recLL8V67J-o9Dk/s1000/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="475" data-original-width="1000" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQj219Wu_fbQgpiECTkn7IrI8yJrwE79XRiahvoWkOoitVRWJKah1i9zrWuaM3Pcz2jNrlX2mnxjfcvwgjXbx19q8ZGh_7mEM_BkGRDkE3FP2AV965ZP6DuVAnFE2wfeGwwr2VjNXG5nt4FsKGoTXjHt-nUDWXg0ra8n5hvpTD7recLL8V67J-o9Dk/w451-h214/1.jpg" width="451" /></a></div>In 87, the Xianbei attacked the Xiongnu chanyu Youliu and killed him. After the downfall of the Xiongnu, the Xianbei replaced them with a loose confederacy from 93 CE. <br /><br />After many struggles against the Xiongnu Empire, the Xianbei manage to establish their own presence in Mongolia, even driving out the last of the Xiongnu near lake Balkhash. <br /><br />By the mid-third century CE, Xianbei controlled much of northern China, from Hebei and Shanxi to the Daqing Mountains in Inner Mongolia. <br /><br />During the Former Han period (206 BCE-8 CE) China was not very aware of the Xianbei, but at the beginning of the Later Han period (25-220 CE), in 41 CE, and then again in 45 CE, the Xianbei and Wuhuan aligned with the Xiongnu and attacked border regions of the Han empire. <br /><br />The third century saw both the fragmentation of the Xianbei state in 235 and the branching out of the various Xianbei tribes later to establish significant empires of their own.<br /><b>Xianbei Empire (93 – 234 CE)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4l6aDsUn4zUaYOHwuP0GYtoQ0hymHdF9F8FbN-m4YzHDzV9pcA8uFFq86U8hAv7rC716FOMH78LXFKk0ZVGDzdWlOR202kGLOsR93mYQ7-J0x8DYPs3kLXUu5rBXGSpXaJsz-homAgY30knmDeCx5URwJdT56POcTDxCfzVP7d2G9poaAmEFvKWBq/s1641/2022-08-31%20(1).png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="893" data-original-width="1641" height="253" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4l6aDsUn4zUaYOHwuP0GYtoQ0hymHdF9F8FbN-m4YzHDzV9pcA8uFFq86U8hAv7rC716FOMH78LXFKk0ZVGDzdWlOR202kGLOsR93mYQ7-J0x8DYPs3kLXUu5rBXGSpXaJsz-homAgY30knmDeCx5URwJdT56POcTDxCfzVP7d2G9poaAmEFvKWBq/w465-h253/2022-08-31%20(1).png" width="465" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-51703105712379479732022-07-30T07:56:00.005-07:002022-07-30T07:56:28.580-07:00The Kingdom of Chimor (c. 900–1470)The Kingdom of Chimor, were a civilisation that occupied the northern coast of modern-day Peru from around 900 CE until 1470 CE. The Moche, an earlier civilization, was previously known as early Chimor or proto- Chimor. <br /><br />Moche, also called Mochica, Andean civilization that flourished from the 1st to the 8th century CE on the northern coast of what is now Peru. <br /><br />Eventually, the Chimor extended their territory even further south and in 1375 CE, under the rulership of Nancinpinco, conquered the Lambayeque (Sicán) culture absorbing some of their cultural practices and artistic ideas. <br /><br />The La Leche Valley was also brought under Chimor control so that, at its height during the reign of Minchançaman c. 1400 CE, the area of Chimor influence stretched 1300 km along the coast of northern Peru. <br /><br />Chimor culture was based on agriculture, aided by immense works of irrigation engineering. The Chimor also utilised Huachaques, sunken farms that removed the dry top layer of soil, to work with the rich, moist soil beneath; Walk-in wells; and large reservoirs to retain the water they gained from their hydraulic systems. <br /><br />They did excellent work in textiles and in gold, silver, and copper. The Chimor apparently had a powerful military and a complex, well-organized social system. They built many well-planned cities; the largest and most impressive was their capital, Chan Chan.<br /><b>The Kingdom of Chimor (c. 900–1470)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi456-wLLHPZyD7pIhIO_jv6DKA2M_gIzHeK5sJi-uoQs_8L_uaXjV_kSgcy51EO6buDUXDK3oO86ju2l2VbwIS0JBZLbHSRxVw2_EFR-7atIUGp-alALYpgSP-p7umPLx_oBUBFCb01awOzIBafucbO2YFu-5nJOiG_QMUwvQ5a70_jJvK5Tm81m68/s500/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="441" data-original-width="500" height="368" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi456-wLLHPZyD7pIhIO_jv6DKA2M_gIzHeK5sJi-uoQs_8L_uaXjV_kSgcy51EO6buDUXDK3oO86ju2l2VbwIS0JBZLbHSRxVw2_EFR-7atIUGp-alALYpgSP-p7umPLx_oBUBFCb01awOzIBafucbO2YFu-5nJOiG_QMUwvQ5a70_jJvK5Tm81m68/w417-h368/1.jpg" width="417" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-22652398516579963742022-07-07T08:35:00.004-07:002022-07-07T08:35:42.082-07:00Etruscan peopleAccording to Herodotus the Etruscans descended from a people who invaded Etruria from Anatolia before 800 BC and established themselves over the native Iron Age inhabitants of the region. While Dionysius of Halicarnassus believed that the Etruscans were of local Italian origin. <br /><br />A genetic study of DNA extracted from ancient skeletons appears that the Etruscans, a sophisticated pre-Roman civilization in central Italy, were of local stock and not migrants from the Near East. (<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Science Advances Vol. 7, NO. 39</i></span>) <br /><br />The Etruscans were a powerful clan with an alien tongue and strange customs. They emerged in what is now central Italy sometime around the 6th century BC. The Etruscan people populated a large region in what is now Tuscany and Lombardy in Italy. <br /><br />The Etruscans were dark-skinned people and their settlement predate ancient Roman and Greek civilizations; it greatly influenced the culture of Rome. <br /><br />The Etruscan cities were independent city-states linked to each other only by a common religion, language, and culture in general. The major Etruscan cities included Cerveteri (Cisra), Chiusi (Clevsin), Populonia (Puplona), Tarquinia (Tarchuna), Veii (Vei), Vetulonia (Vetluna), and Vulci (Velch). <br /><br />The Etruscans are perhaps best known for their sprawling necropoleis, where they buried their dead in tombs decorated with spectacular frescoes, delicately sculpted sarcophagi and elaborate metalwork. <br /><br />The Etruscans were the first kings of Rome and were hugely influential on the Romans. They passed along elements of Greek civilization — like the invention of alphabetic writing. The Etruscans had a unique language and were known to be great artists and craftsmen. <br /><br />During their height, the Etruscans built an economy based on agriculture, mining natural minerals, and trade with Carthage and Greece. They erected dwellings on steep hills and built thick walls around them for protection.<br /><b>Etruscan people<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_ZDQ4hLxVdB49rXHs6D5Z2xuV21F3g21pYrPOnF4EGJq0CrRzPyL3B1YjANJxle5yjDQ8iL3eSjHvlhmrIngJrZrzygoAgD4vT1eSE5SSQ75glsjlTdOZT5ZlJBbmjPm8ozJUCNkhz7jsFk7tfGOuumexTOL8nxtlDEI-ksExuvzCIHtZg4ArCpR5/s632/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="330" data-original-width="632" height="238" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_ZDQ4hLxVdB49rXHs6D5Z2xuV21F3g21pYrPOnF4EGJq0CrRzPyL3B1YjANJxle5yjDQ8iL3eSjHvlhmrIngJrZrzygoAgD4vT1eSE5SSQ75glsjlTdOZT5ZlJBbmjPm8ozJUCNkhz7jsFk7tfGOuumexTOL8nxtlDEI-ksExuvzCIHtZg4ArCpR5/w457-h238/1.jpg" width="457" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-17243415286387064942022-06-02T08:41:00.006-07:002022-06-02T08:41:52.835-07:00Goguryeo kingdomThe Goguryeo kingdom flourished in the 5th and 6th century AD. The traditional founding date of the Goguryeo kingdom was 37 BC and credited to Chu-mong, leader of one of the Puyŏ tribes. Right after its foundation, Goguryeo conquered a number of small states in the area and moved its capital to Gungnaeseong (Tonggu) near the Amnokgang River. <br /><br />Goguryeo was traditionally considered as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea since ancient times and was perceived as a state considered to be one of the predecessors of the Korean nation. The kingdom occupying southern Manchuria, southern Russian Maritime province, and the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula. <br /><br />The various tribes of the region began to create a more homogenous political unit structured around five provinces during the reign of Gogukcheon (179-196 AD). The king controlled foreign relations and the military. Aggressive military activities may have allowed Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and to even dominate them politically and economically. <br /><br />Early Goguryeo kings developed their rule around two important considerations: successful integration of local tribal leaders into the emerging royal government, and establishment of a tribute and tax collection system for an expanding kingdom. <br /><br />With the promulgation by King Sosurim (reigned 371–384) of various laws and decrees aimed at centralizing royal authority, Goguryeo emerged as a full-fledged aristocratic state. <br /><br />The early 5th century AD saw the beginning of Goguryeo's greatest period when, during the reign of Gwanggaeto . Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north. <br /><br />With the establishment of the unifying Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties in China, Goguryeo began to suffer incursions from China. <br /><br />In 661 AD a Tang army besieged Pyongyang which was weakened by an internal power struggle for the throne. The Tangs were forced to withdraw, but when they attacked again in 667 CE, the city, although this time holding out for a year, finally fell and the entire peninsula came under the Unified Silla dynasty (668–935).<br /><b>Goguryeo kingdom<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMHTkHKrXLQnWOzHOozaxL31OdW0fSNZdP9Yw_2VIuwLqe5VpdEF5t1miRsPEv5RBZdJKckpXuccwcGRCMAytv0XOW6jaf2kPAnmK4957xMEO8knb0o0bL8sn6RChRuwQmODRdBs8iOFfL64h_D5yBTkAdAfGZJmshXlFDnm1xaAxWEN03j8EkY6qs/s1120/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1120" data-original-width="850" height="451" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMHTkHKrXLQnWOzHOozaxL31OdW0fSNZdP9Yw_2VIuwLqe5VpdEF5t1miRsPEv5RBZdJKckpXuccwcGRCMAytv0XOW6jaf2kPAnmK4957xMEO8knb0o0bL8sn6RChRuwQmODRdBs8iOFfL64h_D5yBTkAdAfGZJmshXlFDnm1xaAxWEN03j8EkY6qs/w343-h451/1.jpg" width="343" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-90018733128709036462022-04-09T09:06:00.000-07:002022-04-09T09:06:13.666-07:00Kushite statesEstablished - c. 1070 BC<br />Disestablished - c. 550 AD <br /><br />Ancient Nubian cultures were sophisticated and cosmopolitan, as the region served as a major trading center for goods from the African interior, Arabian desert, and Mediterranean basin. <br /><br />Three Kushite kingdoms dominated Nubia for more than 3,000 years, with capitals in Kerma, Napata, and Meroë. <br /><br />The Kush rulers were regarded as guardians of the state religion and were responsible for maintaining the houses of the gods. Some scholars believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system. <br /><br />The location of the kingdom along the Nile River provided strategic communication and trade routes both within the kingdom and throughout northeastern Africa. Kushites also farmed the Nile River valley, relying on irrigation systems and rainfall in some areas. <br /><br />The Nubian kingdom of Kush thrived for centuries at Meroë. Kush had its own dynastic leaders, trade systems, adaptations of Egyptian religion, and even its own alphabet and languages. From the 2nd century BC there was a separate Meroitic writing system. This was an alphabetic script with 23 signs used in a hieroglyphic form (mainly on monumental art) and in a cursive form. <br /><br />The art and architecture of the Kushites reveal a sophisticated society of innovative craftsmen. Notable architecture includes stone temple complexes such as the Lion Temple at Naqa, and the steep-sided, solid pyramids found at Meroe and Jebel Barkal. <br /><br />Cushites and Egyptians engaged in trade, diplomacy, and incessant conflicts resulting in a dynamic landscape of social and political interconnections and millennia of bidirectional migration. Consequently, people of Cushite origin could be found at every tier of Egyptian society—including the office of the pharaoh. <br /><br />Kush became weaker as Egypt was absorbed into the Roman Empire and Rome came to dominate trade to the north. The Kushite kingdom with its capital at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion.<br /><b>Kushite states<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidlL6moPo3zGwZwNLpfLm_GZFo-6t-0XQjHHgmDiqjy3zXZql5RAZG0-ndeGyKmMkB6kdZPyrEjEPJod_VDnTUlqK2PkMcIaIjlXV0LoN8OnFUYwi8C3uvKddhK_Rkg4Hn-ymnqPMcmiqK1O9xd6E_qHCiZkZ9Q_nkbKZHNB79I-cAEoPcyhl2NLl_/s881/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="881" data-original-width="800" height="388" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidlL6moPo3zGwZwNLpfLm_GZFo-6t-0XQjHHgmDiqjy3zXZql5RAZG0-ndeGyKmMkB6kdZPyrEjEPJod_VDnTUlqK2PkMcIaIjlXV0LoN8OnFUYwi8C3uvKddhK_Rkg4Hn-ymnqPMcmiqK1O9xd6E_qHCiZkZ9Q_nkbKZHNB79I-cAEoPcyhl2NLl_/w353-h388/1.jpg" width="353" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-18459023001070216202022-03-08T10:50:00.000-08:002022-03-08T10:50:17.912-08:00History of Phoenician peopleThe Phoenicians occupied a narrow tract of land along the coast of modern Syria, Lebanon and northern Israel. In 1950 Otto Eissfeldt in his article "Phoiniker" in the "Realenzyklopadie" expressed the opinion that the history of this people began about 3000 B.C. <br /><br />Phoenicia was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Canaan was the bridge that concocted Egypt and Mesopotamia and this piece of land shared today by Lebanon and Israel. Two groups – The Phoenician and the Hebrews – settled in Canaan and formed small kingdoms. <br /><br />Phoenicians were active in the eastern Mediterranean from around the 4th millennium BC probably before the Minoans whose civilization emerged in the 3rd millennium BCE. The Phoenicians people were part of a larger group known as the Canaanites. The Canaanites came from the desert south and east of Canaan. <br /><br />The name Phoenician, used to describe these people in the first millennium B.C., is a Greek invention. One interpretation of the origins of the word Phoenician is that it derives from the Greek p(h)oinix (singular) or poiniki (plural) used to describe people who lived in Canaan. <br /><br />The term Canaanites is generally applied to them, but could include non-Phoenicians. Another group – the Philistines – lived in southern Canaan along the Mediterranean. For about a thousand years, Phoenicians were able to travel by sea across the length and breadth of the Mediterranean and far beyond. Their sailors and explorer plotted their courses by the sun and stars. They travel to places where no one else dared to go. <br /><br />They were the great mariners of the ancient world, and their thalassocracy (maritime realm) was organized into city-states akin to the Greeks. Around 60 BCE, Diadorus wrote: “The Phoenicians ... from ancient times were skilled in making discoveries for their own profit.” Masters of the sea, they took to exploring uncharted oceans as they looked for new sources of both raw materials and manufactured goods, as well as of grain and other foodstuffs. <br /><br />Phoenicians’ heyday came after the collapse of the great powers of Hittite Anatolia, Kassite Babylonia, and Mycenaean Greece around 1200 BCE: merchants from Levantine ports including Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Beirut, seized a new set of opportunities, trading cedar from Mount Lebanon, along with exquisite items crafted from metal, ivory, and glass, for raw metals from the west. <br /><br />The Phoenicians founded the coastal city-states of Byblos, Sidon and Tyre (ancient Canaan). All were fiercely independent, rival cities and, unlike the neighboring inland states, the Phoenicians represented a confederation of maritime traders rather than a defined country. Sidon and Tyre were two large Phoenician cities barely 35 kilometers apart, a fact that contributed to their rivalry, open or latent, throughout the whole of their history. They developed alternately: when one was prosperous and powerful, the other was weak and in decline. Sidon developed substantially during the second half of the second millennium. <br /><br />The greatest of all the Phoenician city-states, however, was Carthage in North Africa. According to legend it was founded in 813 BCE by Queen Dido, and its name meant “New Village”. <br /><br />Phoenicians played a large part in the development of the first alphabet using abstract symbols rather than pictographs as used in Egyptian and Babylonian writing. Herodotus cites Phoenicia as the birthplace of the alphabet, stating that it was brought to Greece by the Phoenician Kadmus. <br /><br />Phoenician alphabet developed out of the North Semitic alphabet and was spread over the Mediterranean area by Phoenician traders. It was in use until about the 1st century BCE in Phoenicia proper.<br /><b>History of Phoenician people<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgeqvKiPYm8gqMXxqPwKme-UNX5jrZZTj5rr3FEsRCidStax2cBIycetozFycg_htI0TN-c_lHrVZppoupFBB2Otga-998JVjvINGixGtH7rHU8eWXkRuQ3qg05MVLfwGXFhmEs6wZZA5V7iGe-DlT0ZhYkqNpE6Lk9PTQmEaS264N_2POEcFhLSP4L=s850" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="448" data-original-width="850" height="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgeqvKiPYm8gqMXxqPwKme-UNX5jrZZTj5rr3FEsRCidStax2cBIycetozFycg_htI0TN-c_lHrVZppoupFBB2Otga-998JVjvINGixGtH7rHU8eWXkRuQ3qg05MVLfwGXFhmEs6wZZA5V7iGe-DlT0ZhYkqNpE6Lk9PTQmEaS264N_2POEcFhLSP4L=w468-h247" width="468" /></a></div><br /></b><div><br /></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-29180045065832920052022-01-29T06:47:00.001-08:002022-01-29T06:47:06.430-08:00Janid DynastyIn the 17th and 18th centuries, the Khanate was ruled by the Janid Dynasty (Astrakhanids or Toqay Timurids). They were the last Genghisid descendants to rule Bukhara. <br /><br />By 1510 the Uzbeks had completed their conquest of Central Asia, including the territory of the present-day Uzbekistan. From 1533 to 1540, Bukhara briefly became its capital during the reign of Ubaydallah Khan. The Khanate reached its greatest extent and influence under its penultimate Shaybanid ruler, the scholarly Abdallah Khan II. When Abdallah II died in 1598, his son and successor Abdalmumin, who had spent a number of years as governor of Balkh, managed to stay on the throne only a few months before he was ousted and killed in the disorders that followed his father's death. <br /><br />In 1556. Jani Muhammad (brother-in-law of Abdallah) married the Uzbek khan's sister, and he acceded to the vacated throne in Bukhara as the first ruler of a dynasty called Janid or Ashtarkhanid; descendants of another line of the Jochids, not through Shiban but through Tuqay Timur, one of Juchi's other sons. although some territory was lost, the political stability and economic well-being of the state were not immediately affected. <br /><br />The khans of Ḵīva, beginning with Abuʾl-Ḡāzī (1644-64), took advantage of Janid difficulties and repeatedly raided Transoxiana, often penetrating to its central regions. <br /><br />The Janid dynasty, ruled Transoxania after 1599. Under their rule the city and khanate crystallized into an almost classical pattern of a Muslim polity of its time, cherishing and even enhancing traditional values. The Janid dynasty is considered to have had a strong Muslim influence and promoted the construction of a large number of mosques and madrasas. <br /><br />From the elevated political and cultural accomplishments of the Shaybānids, the level and extent of Uzbek influence slid into decline under Ashtarkhanid rule, reaching a low point by the mid-1700s. In 1740, it was conquered by Nader Shah, the Shah of Iran.<br /><b>Janid Dynasty<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjhZAUwKBi3qK3N2nV8EJsA6pKRNyHWX8Wz2u882BVco6IiacW2duGApMD3-I1mzqMssABx8M6C5iC-sjG6Hq68PnEjKW06vGLxB3lHyNpPKQvsTacZhojCD9KDJLrPekFBV7Xq5wjEhOz4nL8PIgz0hs895VWE0eTuyzuDkZW_N99W5ycRE1Nw4Je1=s701" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="701" data-original-width="645" height="419" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjhZAUwKBi3qK3N2nV8EJsA6pKRNyHWX8Wz2u882BVco6IiacW2duGApMD3-I1mzqMssABx8M6C5iC-sjG6Hq68PnEjKW06vGLxB3lHyNpPKQvsTacZhojCD9KDJLrPekFBV7Xq5wjEhOz4nL8PIgz0hs895VWE0eTuyzuDkZW_N99W5ycRE1Nw4Je1=w385-h419" width="385" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4391890387769760816.post-14593306437994273602022-01-04T08:09:00.007-08:002022-01-04T08:09:48.581-08:00First Babylonian Empire (Old Babylonian Empire) About 2300 BCE a northern tribe established a unified kingdom in Mesopotamia. Sargon I conquered all the Sumerian city-states and built a new capital city called Akkad. <br /><br />The city of Babylon makes its first appearance in history after the fall of the Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which had ruled the city states of the alluvial plain between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris for more than a century (2112-2004 BC). <br /><br />About 1900 BCE the Amorites, a tribe from the west, conquered Akkad. The Amorites, who were a part of the larger tribe known as the Western Semites, were crucial in the development of the Old Babylonian Empire. <br /><br />The nation of the Amorites ("westerners") took over Isin, Larsa, and Babylon. Their kings are known as the First Dynasty of Babylon (c. 1894 – c. 1595 BC). <br /><br />The area was reunited by Hammurabi, a king of Babylon of Amorite descent (1792-1750 BC). Hammurabi was the sixth Amorite king. Babylon became a major military power under Amorite king Hammurabi. After Hammurabi conquered neighboring city states, he brought much of southern and central Mesopotamia under unified Babylonian rule, creating an empire called Babylonia. <br /><br />Religious practices and features such as the cuneiform script of the Sumerian and Sumero-Akkadian civilization were adopted by the Amorites. <br /><br />Samsu-iluna (c.1749–c.1712 BC), Hammurabi successor, made several attempts to add more territories and expand the empire, especially in the South: Ida-Maras, Emutbal, Uruk and Isin. <br /><br />Under Hammurabi Babylon became the most splendid and important city of the ancient Near East. From his reign on, the alluvial plain of southern Iraq was called, with a deliberate archaism, Mât Akkadî, "the country of Akkad", after the city that had united the region centuries before. <br /><br />Hammurabi introduced the famous code of laws (“an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”). He created many civic improvements and monuments. <br /><br />After the death of the great Babylonian King Hammurabi of the older Babylonian dynasty, the following Kings were weak. <br /><br />The enemies sometimes invaded Babylonia, and in 1595 BC, the Hittite king Mursilis I advanced along the Euphrates, sacked Babylon, and even took away the statue of the supreme god of Babylonia, Marduk, from its temple, the Esagila.<br /><b>First Babylonian Empire (Old Babylonian Empire)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgPHxkwjELIY39pSwKuOnVeCKJXrVmMfmF00imVsLP5mR8Uuv3d1rupAycRVUIgRmNF0KXOBK_inz68FDsXhTKmdtpugB1j938fhKCn1bpyJGdvD3PjtcgHz3PHoONVp3-uCagydRFG8DSSeyoD4XkdkRydFtnRspc7Dd_0WwzLcx6Xype7CeUlQ8Yo=s981" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="981" height="279" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgPHxkwjELIY39pSwKuOnVeCKJXrVmMfmF00imVsLP5mR8Uuv3d1rupAycRVUIgRmNF0KXOBK_inz68FDsXhTKmdtpugB1j938fhKCn1bpyJGdvD3PjtcgHz3PHoONVp3-uCagydRFG8DSSeyoD4XkdkRydFtnRspc7Dd_0WwzLcx6Xype7CeUlQ8Yo=w427-h279" width="427" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com