Legacy of the Kassite Kingdom: Rulers of Ancient Mesopotamia

The Kassites, a significant kingdom in ancient Mesopotamia, ruled Southern Mesopotamia from around 1500 B.C.E. to 1100 B.C.E. They emerged from the Zagros Mountains, northeast of Babylonia, as tribal groups that eventually established dominance in the region. Their ascendancy in Babylon began after the collapse of the Old Babylonian dynasty in 1595 B.C.E., leading to a period of nearly 400 years of Kassite rule, ending in 1155 B.C.E.

The Kassite rulers were initially members of a small military aristocracy, yet they proved to be efficient and effective governors, maintaining local support throughout their reign. They made significant contributions to the region's infrastructure by refurbishing ancient Babylonian cities and constructing new ones, such as Dur-Kurigalzu. This city, located near modern Baghdad, was named after the Kassite king Kurigalzu and became their capital. Dur-Kurigalzu featured a grand palace and several temples, showcasing the kingdom's wealth and architectural prowess. The Kassites are also credited with introducing the horse to Babylonia, an animal that held sacred significance in their culture.

Kassite religion was rooted in a Proto-Indo-European tradition, characterized by a pantheon of gods similar to other polytheistic religions of the era. Their religious practices included the worship of 24 to 30 deities, reflecting the complexity and diversity of their spiritual beliefs.

Despite their long rule, the Kassite dynasty faced significant challenges, particularly from the neighboring Elamites. In the 12th century B.C.E., Elam launched devastating raids on Kassite-controlled Babylonia, exacerbating internal insurrections and leading to the dynasty's downfall in 1155 B.C.E. The Elamites looted many sanctuaries, taking numerous monuments back to Susa, which has complicated the archaeological record of the period.

Following the collapse of their dynasty, the Kassites retreated to the Zagros Mountains, where they continued to resist foreign powers. In the 1st millennium B.C.E., they opposed the eastward expansion of the Assyrians and paid tribute to the Persians. Although they were later conquered by Alexander the Great, the Kassites managed to regain their independence, maintaining a degree of autonomy until they eventually disappeared from the historical record.

The Kassites left a lasting impact on Mesopotamian history, particularly through their contributions to the region’s urban development, religious practices, and military innovations. Their legacy, though often overshadowed by other Mesopotamian civilizations, remains an essential part of the ancient Near Eastern narrative.
Legacy of the Kassite Kingdom: Rulers of Ancient Mesopotamia

First Sealand dynasty (c. 1732–1460 BC)

Babylon remained a minor territory for a century after it was founded, until the reign of its sixth Amorite ruler. Hammurabi ruled Babylon from about 1792 to 1750 BC. He is noted for his surviving set of laws, once considered the oldest promulgation of laws in human history.

After the death of Hammurabi, his empire began to disintegrate rapidly. Under his successor Samsu-iluna (1749-1712 BC), the far south of Mesopotamia was lost to a native Akkadian king, called Ilum-ma-ili, Ili-ma-ilu, the founder of the First Sealand dynasty, probably around 1720 BC.

The Sealand Dynasty remained free of Babylon for the next 272 years. The Sealand Kingdom formed as a secessionist state in the area corresponding roughly to ancient Sumer, arose from the rebellion against Babylonian hegemony, outlived the Amorite dynasty in Babylon, before being reclaimed by Babylon under Kassite rule.

The dynasty, which had broken free of the short lived, and by this time crumbling Old Babylonian Empire, was named for the province in the far south of Mesopotamia, a swampy region berefts of large settlements which gradually expanded southwards with the silting up of the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
First Sealand dynasty (c. 1732–1460 BC)

Nabopolassar “son of an unknown”: Chaldean king of Babylonia

In 626 BC - Ashurbanipal dies and Assyria begins to disintegrate, driven by internal strife. Babylon revolted with the help of the Chaldean people, led by Nabopolassar. Civil war happened. Nabopolassar exploited the situation and later seized the throne, and the Neo-Babylonian dynasty was born.

Though he presents himself as the “son of an unknown,” Nabopolassar may actually have been a general in the service of Sinsharishkun, the powerful king of Assyria, and very likely he was born into the ruling elite of Uruk.

He had himself officially recognized as king on 23 November 626. For the first years of Nabopolassar’s reign, Egypt and Assyria continued to harass the new empire. His eldest son and crown prince Nebuchadnezzar became involved in the military as a young man. Within 10 years on the throne Nabopolassar successfully united Babylonia and expelled Assyrians.

Nabopolassar is an important Babylonian king, he began restoration works throughout Babylonia, he established well-guarded frontiers, and defeated opponents, most notably the victory over Assyria.

In 616 BC Nabopolassar marched his army into Assyria proper and attempted to besiege Assur and Arrapha, but was defeated. Nabopolassar made alliances with other former subjects of Assyria, the Medes, Persians, Elamites and Scythians.

In 61 5 and 614 BC attacks were made on Assur and Arrapha and both fell. During 613 BC the Assyrians seem to have rallied and repelled Babylonian and Median attacks. However, in 612 BC Nabopolassar and the Median king Cyaxares led a coalition of forces including Babylonians, Medes, Sclthians and Cimmerians in sacking Assyria’s then capital Nineveh and toppled their rule.

Nabopolassar was king the year Daniel was taken to Babylon. In 605 BC - Nabopolassar dies and Nebuchadnezzar II becomes King of Babylon. He will rule for 43 years and bring the Babylonian Empire to its peak.
Nabopolassar “son of an unknown”: Chaldean king of Babylonia

Cyaxares son of Phraortes: The third king of Media

Cyaxares (r.625–585 BC), son of Phraortes, founder of Median power, was one of the kings who brought about the fall of Nineveh (612 B.C.) and broke the hegemony of the Assyrians. The Persian ruler of about the same time, Cambyses I, was vassal to Cyaxares.

The Medes – like the Persians and the Parthians – were a West-Iranian, semi-nomadic people. During the late second millennium BC the Medes migrated from the steppes of Central Asia to the Iranian Plateau, along with their Persian and Parthian cousins, and settled in the Zagros Mountains. The spread of Western Grey Ware may be attributed to this migration wave.

Cyaxares was the third king of Media, but only ruled after the Scythians had been driven out. He regained control of the empire and conquered Assyria.

Cyaxares reorganized the military into special units, majoring upon particular armaments; spearmen, bowmen and cavalry. This reorganization made them rather a match for the Assyrian armies.

Babylonian chronicles mention raids by Median troops on Assyrian soil in 615 BC. First these Median troops are driven back, but in 614 BC they return, led by Cyaxares. Cyaxares takes Ashur and forms an alliance with the Babylonian king Nabopolassar, who had also revolted against Assyria. Together they take the Assyrian capital Nineveh in 612 BC and Harran in 610 BC.
Cyaxares son of Phraortes: The third king of Media

The Assyrian King: Sargon II

Sargon II (r. 721-705 BC) took the throne of Assyria when his predecessor (and likely half brother) Shalmaneser V was killed.

Sargon II’s accession was no doubt a violent one, and it took him about one year to quell opposition in Assyria and solidify his position as king. Sargon’s reign can almost be summarized as a series of holding actions. The Assyrians empire was large - perhaps too large for its resources.

The peoples on all sides of the empire were restive, and revolts were commonplace. From time to time they formed alliances; ultimately it was by such alliance that the empire was defeated.

In 710 BC, Sargon II defeated Merodack-Baladan and Assyrian assumed complete control of Babylon. Upon vanquishing Merodack, Sargon II declared himself as king of Babylon and rules his entire Assyrian kingdom from Babylon for the next three years.

Merodack-Baladan remained as a local ruler and supported Sargon to the end of his reign. Sargon II died in battle in 705 BC while campaigning in the north.
The Assyrian King: Sargon II

Amorites

The Amorites were an ancient people who inhabited lands to the west of the Euphrates River from around the middle of the third millennium BC. They are the descendents of one of the sons of Canaan.

Babylonians called the people to the west of them ‘Amorites’, meaning Westerners. This term Amorite or Westerner was used by other peoples including the Egyptians, when speaking of the people living in the area of Palestine.

The Amorites were a Semitic people who may have originated in the Arabian Peninsula. According to the few ancient sources that have survived from the period, the Amorites were primarily a nomadic people who were regarded as ‘uncivilized’ by the unban societies of Mesopotamia at the time.

Hammurabi

The Amorites were chiefly responsible for the upheaval of Sumerian power centers in Mesopotamia and the initiation of the Old Babylon Period. During the second half of the third millennium the Amorites seem to have gradually migrated eastward into central Mesopotamian, placing great pressure on the loose affiliation of city-states that made up Sumerian society.

The culturally important and powerful cities of Isin, Larsa, Ashur and Babylon were all rules by Amorites by the last century of the third millennium. Hammurabi is the most famous Amorite from this period.

In about 2004 B.C, Amorites sacked the city of Ur, which had been the center of Sumerian civilization. They dominated the region of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine from 2000 BC to 1600 BC, bringing them into conflict with Egypt. Inscriptions from the era of Egypt’s First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 BC) indicate that the Amorites controlled Phoenicia, modern Lebanon, disrupting trade with Egypt.

The end of Amorite rule came after the conquest and sack of Babylon (1531 BC) by the Hittites, when its remains were overrun by the Kassites, who were to hold the region for some four hundred years.
Amorites

Kingdom of Judah (928 – 587 BC)

Judah and Benjamin tribes founded the Kingdom of Judah. It was split from Northern Kingdom of Israel after the death of King Solomon.

Kingdom of Judah was rather isolated and sparsely populated kingdom until the eight century BC. It was hardly comparable in territory, wealth and military might to the Kingdom of Israel in the north.

Northern Kingdom of Israel later fell to Assyrian conquerors in the year 722 and it inhabitants were led onto exile or enslaved.

After the fall of Kingdom of Israel, Judah grew enormously in population, developed complex state institutions and merged as a meaningful power in the region.

In 586 BC the Babylonians out of Mesopotamia conquered Judah and destroyed the Temple at Jerusalem which was built around 950 BC by Solomon.

The tribes of Judah and Benjamin in 586 were driven from Jerusalem into captivity in Babylon, later returned to reestablish their kingdom and rebuild their temple in Jerusalem.

They are believed to be the ancestors of all modern Jews.
Kingdom of Judah (928 – 587 BC)